Valorization of Wild Edible Plants as Food Ingredients and Their Economic Value

“

TL;DR

This narrative review of 115 wild edible plants (WEPs) from 47 families demonstrates that many WEPs are rich sources of protein, fiber, minerals, and phenolic compounds, with some species providing up to 50% of the recommended daily intake of key nutrients per 100–200 g serving. The paper highlights the socio-economic importance of WEPs for rural and ethnic communities, where they can account for 5–75% of family income, and argues for their valorization as sustainable food ingredients. The clinical significance lies in the potential of WEPs to address micronutrient deficiencies (iron, zinc, iodine) and provide antioxidant benefits, though the authors note that toxicological and functional studies are still needed before widespread industrial use.

Full summary

5,217 CHARS

**Background:** Wild Edible Plants (WEPs) are defined as plants that grow spontaneously without direct human cultivation, relying solely on available natural resources. Despite their historical use dating back to the Bronze Age and current consumption by an estimated ~100 million people in Europe alone (FAO, 2016), WEPs remain undervalued due to insufficient knowledge about their bioactive composition and nutritional potential. This review aims to comprehensively identify the potential uses and importance of WEPs based on their sustainability, bioactive compound content, socio-economic relevance, and applicability in the agri-food industry.

**Methods:** The review followed the 2020 PRISMA approach for literature identification, searching Scopus, FSTA, and ScienceDirect databases using keywords including "wild edible plants," "WEP," "edible plants," "ruderal plants," and "wild edible plants food." Articles published between 1999 and 2022 were selected, with most included in Journal Citation Reports (JCR). The review collected data on 115 WEPs from 47 families worldwide, with the most represented families being Asteraceae > Brassicaceae > Fabaceae > Lamiaceae. The analysis covered proximate composition, sugars and organic acids, mineral content, fatty acids, phenolic content and flavonoids, and economic value.

**Key Results:** Proximate analysis of 47 WEPs showed an average moisture content of ~80%, with Silybum marianum having the highest (93.4 g/100 g) and Thymus pulegioides the lowest (47.6 g/100 g). Ash content ranged from 1.0 g/100 g (Rumex induratus, Rumex papillaris) to 24.05% (Blumea lacera). Three WEPs stood out for high protein content: Portulaca oleracea (27.8 g/100 g), Blumea lacera (22.52 g/100 g), and Asparagus acutifolius (22.40 g/100 g). The lowest protein content was in Silybum marianum (0.6 g/100 g). Fat content was highest in Bryonia dioica (15.1 g/100 g dry weight). Carbohydrate content was highest in Thymus pulegioides (89.35 g/100 g) and Mentha pulegium (84.74 g/100 g). Dietary fiber was highest in Blumea lacera (20.68 g/100 g dw) and Berberis aristata (18.10 g/100 g dw). Energy values ranged up to 440 kcal/100 g dw (Bryonia dioica).

Regarding sugars (22 WEPs), glucose was the predominant sugar, with Malva sylvestris showing the highest glucose (7.35 g/100 g dw) and fructose (8.72 g/100 g dw) contents. Three organic acids (oxalic, malic, shikimic) were mainly found, with oxalic acid concentrations ranging from 706 to 972 mg/100 g in Hymenonema graecum, Sonchus oleraceus, and Raphanus raphanistrum. Malic acid reached 580 mg/100 g in Raphanus raphanistrum.

Mineral analysis of 17 WEPs revealed that Chondrilla juncea can provide almost 50% of the recommended daily intake of copper after 200 g consumption, and Montia fontana could cover approximately 50% of the recommended daily manganese intake after 200 g. Foeniculum vulgare had the highest calcium content (341 mg/100 g), Scolymus hispanicus had the highest potassium (1040 mg/100 g), and Beta maritima had the highest sodium (171 mg/100 g). Malva sylvestris showed the highest iron (5.82 mg/100 g), magnesium (715 mg/100 g), and zinc (1.98 mg/100 g) contents.

Fatty acid profiles from 43 WEPs showed linolenic acid as the most abundant, exceeding 60% in eight plants (Bryonia dioica 70.3%, Malva sylvestris 67.8%, Papaver rhoeas 65.0%, Anchusa azurea 64.7%, Rumex pulcher 63.0%, Origanum vulgare 62.3%, Umbilicus rupestris 62.0%, Cichorium intybus 62.0%). Linoleic acid was highest in Allium ampeloprasum (53.5%). Palmitic acid was present in all WEPs analyzed, with Viola x wittrockiana showing the highest (36.41 g/100 g dw).

Total phenolic content (TPC) was reported for 100 WEPs, with Tamus communis reaching the highest at 404 mg GAE/g. Within the Asteraceae family (17 WEPs), TPC ranged from 1.1 mg GAE/g (Youngia japonica) to 184 mg GAE/g (Helichrysum stoechas). Total flavonoid content (TFC) was highest in Origanum vulgare (224 mg CE/g) and Malva sylvestris (211 mg CE/g).

Economically, edible flowers are sold in punnets of 6–15 flowers at prices between 8 and 17 euros, with some reaching approximately 40 euros. In northeast India, a survey of 30 local vendors and 550 households found that WEPs accounted for between 5% and 75% of family income. The study identified 158 wild plants (78.8% edible) and 5 wild edible mushrooms in consumption or sale.

**Clinical Implications:** The review provides evidence that consumption of 100–200 g of certain WEPs can cover up to 50% of the recommended daily intake of proteins and fiber, and serve as natural sources of macro- and micro-minerals. The high phenolic and flavonoid content suggests potential antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-tumor activities. Given that iron deficiency affects up to 18% of the world's children under 5 years and pregnant women, and zinc and iodine deficiencies affect 17% and 28% of the global population respectively, WEPs could play a role in addressing micronutrient deficiencies. However, the authors emphasize that toxicological studies and research on technological and functional properties are needed before WEPs can be incorporated into industrial food processes and commercial products.