Occurrence of Phthalate Esters in Coffee and Risk Assessment

**Background:** Phthalates (PAEs) such as bis(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) and di-butyl phthalate (DBP) are plasticizers used in food contact materials and are known endocrine disruptors. Coffee is one of the most widely consumed beverages globally, and its processing chain—from harvest to extraction—may introduce PAE contamination. This study aimed to evaluate DEHP and DBP concentrations in coffee powder and beverages from different packaging and extraction methods, and to assess consumer risk.

**Methods:** Sixty packaged coffee powder/bean samples were collected: 15 vacuum-packed in multilayer bags (powder), 15 beans in multilayer bags (freshly ground), 15 paper pods in multilayer bags, and 15 in aluminum tins. Forty coffee beverage samples were extracted using three methods: professional espresso machine (PEM, n=10), Moka pot (MP, n=20), and home espresso machine (HEM, n=10). PAEs were extracted via acetonitrile, purified on Florisil/Bondesil columns, and analyzed by GC/MS in SIM mode. Recoveries were 98±10% for DEHP and 98±9% for DBP. LODs were 0.300 ng/mL (DEHP) and 0.800 ng/mL (DBP). Risk assessment used estimated daily intake (EDI) compared to tolerable daily intake (TDI: DEHP 50 μg/kg bw/day, DBP 10 μg/kg bw/day) and incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) for DEHP (slope factor 14 (μg/kg bw/day)⁻¹).

**Key Results:** In coffee powder, DEHP concentrations were higher than DBP across all packaging types. The highest median DBP was in aluminum packs (0.58 ng/g), and the highest median DEHP was in multilayer packs (5.01 ng/g), but no significant differences were found among packaging types. In beverages, DEHP was significantly higher in PEM-extracted coffee (median 6.65 ng/g, range 2.58–11.32) compared to MP (0.78, 0.59–0.91) and HEM (0.83, 0.62–0.98). DBP concentrations were similar across machines. DEHP levels in beverages exceeded those in the corresponding powder, suggesting migration from machine components rather than powder. All PAE levels were below EU specific migration limits (SML: DEHP 1.5 mg/kg, DBP 0.3 mg/kg). EDI for DEHP ranged from 0.33 ng/kg bw/day (1 cup, MP) to 17.17 ng/kg bw/day (6 cups, PEM); for DBP from 0.030 ng/kg bw/day (1 cup, PEM) to 0.31 ng/kg bw/day (6 cups, HEM)—all well below TDI. ILCR for DEHP was highest at 2.31×10⁻⁷ (6 cups, PEM), below both USEPA (1×10⁻⁴–1×10⁻⁶) and Health Canada (1×10⁻⁵) thresholds.

**Clinical Implications:** This study provides evidence that coffee consumption does not pose a meaningful health risk from DEHP or DBP exposure, regardless of packaging or brewing method. All measured concentrations were orders of magnitude below regulatory safety limits, and cancer risk estimates were negligible. The choice of coffee machine may modestly influence exposure, with professional espresso machines yielding higher DEHP levels, but even the worst-case scenario (6 cups/day from PEM) remained well within safe limits. These findings support coffee as a safe beverage regarding phthalate exposure.