Intertwined realities — hybrid institutions in the Peruvian fisheries and aquaculture sectors

**Background** Peru is a major fishing nation, with the anchoveta fishery ranking as the second biggest in the world (average production up to 5.5 million tons for 2005–2014) and contributing 0.7–1.5% to Peru's GDP (2008–2017). The Peruvian bay scallop aquaculture industry produces between 16,800 and 93,000 tons annually (2011–2018), with Sechura Bay accounting for 80% of national and 50% of Latin American scallop production in 2013. The state has promoted industrial anchoveta fishing for fishmeal (74% exported to China) and scallop aquaculture for export (67% to Europe, 23% to the Americas) following blue economy paradigms. However, this development model has marginalized artisanal fishers who traditionally fish for local consumption and internal markets. The paper aims to understand the persistence of informal and illegal activities and explain the formation of hybrid institutional entanglements in these two sectors.

**Methods** The study uses a qualitative hybrid methodology comparing two Peruvian case studies: the artisanal anchoveta fishery based in Pisco, Ica, and the Peruvian bay scallop aquaculture industry in Sechura Bay, Piura. The authors conducted an integral literature review and systematized quantitative and qualitative secondary information from the Ministry of Production (PRODUCE) and media. Primary data was collected through fieldwork visits to Pisco and Sechura between 2013 and 2021, following a grounded theory perspective. Data gathering included informal conversations and semi-structured interviews with fishers, fishers' leaders, scallop farmers, workers (divers), value chain actors, and state authorities. Semi-structured telephone interviews were conducted in 2021 due to COVID-19 mobility restrictions. Field observations of fishing, processing, and selling practices were also carried out.

**Key Results** The paper identifies three main arguments used by artisanal fishers to contest state regulations: (1) fishing freely in the ocean is a customary right of small-scale fishing communities; (2) state regulation clearly benefits industrial operations and export firms over local producers; and (3) state policy-makers lack sufficient knowledge about artisanal fishers' activities. The anchoveta value chain reveals multiple hybrid entanglements: formal industrial vessels, formal small-scale vessels (with permits), and informal vessels (without permits) all fish anchoveta. Catch from formal small-scale vessels can go to either formal or informal processing plants. Artisanal fishers sell part of their catch to intermediaries who let anchoveta dry in the sun ("pampas de secado") for informal fishmeal production. High-quality illegally processed anchoveta can be sold to formal fishmeal enterprises to be mixed with their production, effectively becoming formalized. In the scallop value chain, most spat is still obtained from natural banks around Lobos de Tierra despite being prohibited by law since 2006 (RM No. 293-2006-PRODUCE). All illegally collected spat is passed as formal through obscuring its origin when registered with state authorities. "Guest" fishers' production is counted as concession owners', and scallops produced in informal or illegal areas are declared as catch of legally operating groups. The state has responded with repressive measures including DL No. 1393 (2018), which criminalized illegal fishing activities and authorized destruction of vessels and gear, and removal of informal farming infrastructure in Sechura Bay's buffer zone.

**Clinical Implications** This paper has no direct clinical implications as it is a social science study of fisheries governance. However, it has implications for food security and public health policy in Peru. The authors note that state policies prioritizing industrial fishing for export have exacerbated social injustice and malnutrition. The divisive nature of regulations—prioritizing industrial fishing while restricting small-scale fishers to harvesting food for human consumption—has failed to address food security concerns. The study suggests that state economic models and policies need adjustment to foster small-scale fishers' social inclusion and social justice while strengthening public regulation. The hybrid governance arrangements described show that informal and illegal practices are not isolated occurrences but embedded in how the sector functions, with implications for sustainable resource management and the livelihoods of approximately 70,000 fishers in the artisanal DHC fleet.