Indigenous communities’ perceptions reveal threats and management options of wild edible plants in semiarid lands of northwestern Kenya

{"Background": "Wild edible plants (WEPs) serve as 'safety nets' for many communities during lean seasons and times of conflict, providing nutrition, medicine, and cultural value. However, WEPs face increasing threats from habitat destruction, overexploitation, and climate change, particularly in arid and semiarid lands. Turkana County in northwestern Kenya has the highest poverty rate (79.4%) and food poverty rate (66.1%) in Kenya, compared to national averages of 36.1% and 32%, respectively. Only 3.2% of its population hold food stocks lasting more than one month. The Turkana people traditionally rely on nomadic pastoralism and derive plant-based vitamins and herbal medicines primarily from WEPs. This study aimed to understand threats and management options for WEPs using an integrated participatory approach combining focus group discussions (FGDs) with field plot surveys across three community units with different socioeconomic and environmental settings.", "Methods": "The study was conducted from October 2020 to April 2021 in three community health units in Turkana County: Nasiger (dry plains, ~166 mm annual rainfall, pastoral livelihood), Atala Kamusio (mid- to lowland, ~371 mm annual rainfall, border pastoral livelihood), and Lopur (riverine, ~327 mm annual rainfall, riverine agro-pastoral livelihood). Threats and management options were extracted from 23 literature sources using snowball sampling and the IUCN threats classification scheme version 3.2. FGDs were held with 14 adult participants (age \u226518 years) in each community unit (total n=42), including village elders, chiefs, teachers, health workers, nutritionists, public health officers, and community members. Participants were 60% female and 40% male. Three priority woody WEPs (Salvadora persica, Ziziphus mauritiana, Balanites rotundifolia) were selected for detailed discussion. Participants free-listed threats, co-grouped them into ten categories (nine pre-defined plus 'others'), and scored each category from 1 (least concern) to 10 (greatest concern) using preference ranking with cardboard cards. Management options were scored similarly on a scale of 1 to 12. For field observations, 240 survey plots of 1 ha each (80 per community unit) were established within a 5 km buffer radius of each FGD venue, with 40 riverine and 40 off-riverine plots per community. Nine threat categories (excluding climate change) were scored from 1 (least) to 9 (highest) by consensus of three observers. Data were analyzed using nonparametric Friedman aligned ranks tests in R version 4.2.2.", "Key Results": "From FGDs, the highest-ranked threats across all communities combined were climate change (score 285), invasive species (score 281), and overstocking/overgrazing (score 260). At Nasiger, top threats were climate change (117), invasive species (88), and overstocking/overgrazing (65). At Atala Kamusio, top threats were climate change (111), invasive species (104), and overstocking/overgrazing (93). At Lopur, top threats were agricultural expansion (130), selective harvesting/overharvesting (119), and overstocking/overgrazing (102). Significant differences (\u03b1<5%) between community units were found for all threat categories except invasive species, pests and diseases, and others. From field plot surveys, the highest-ranked threats across all communities were overstocking/overgrazing (score 1831), selective harvesting/overharvesting (1470), and invasive species (1443). At Nasiger, top field threats were overstocking/overgrazing (581), invasive species (483), and selective harvesting/overharvesting (471). At Atala Kamusio: overstocking/overgrazing (635), selective harvesting/overharvesting (557), and fuelwood collection/charcoal burning (448). At Lopur: agricultural expansion (658), invasive species (628), and uncontrolled fire (617). No significant differences were found between riverine and off-riverine plots. Strong positive linear associations were found between FGD rankings and field plot survey rankings of threats. For management options across all communities, the highest-ranked were mitigate climate change (score 384), preserve local knowledge about WEPs (382), and selection, propagation, processing and marketing (378). At Nasiger, top management was control harvesting for food and fodder (1221); at Atala Kamusio, cultivate WEPs (1391); at Lopur, mitigate climate change (1331). Seven of 12 management options showed significant differences between at least two community units.", "Clinical Implications": "This study demonstrates that indigenous communities possess detailed knowledge of threats to WEPs that aligns closely with field observations, supporting the integration of local perceptions into conservation planning. The findings highlight that management strategies must be tailored to local socioeconomic and environmental contexts\u2014for example, agricultural expansion is the dominant threat in riverine agro-pastoral areas (Lopur) while overstocking/overgrazing dominates in pastoral areas (Nasiger, Atala Kamusio). Priority management options include climate change mitigation, preserving indigenous knowledge, and developing selection, propagation, processing, and marketing programs for WEPs. Some management options (e.g., conservation in sacred areas, controlling harvesting, cultivation) can be implemented through local community initiatives, while others (e.g., nutritional assessment, protected areas, propagation programs) require external intervention with local collaboration. The authors recommend cost-benefit analysis of management options and mapping of suitable WEP habitats before implementing conservation plans, particularly given that WEPs serve as critical safety nets for populations with 79.4% poverty and 66.1% food poverty rates."}