Technological transformation and changing social relations in the ring seine fishery of Kerala, India

**Background:** Across the Global South, technological innovations are transforming fish food systems with significant impacts on small-scale producers and food security. A crucial but understudied aspect is how these transformations affect social relations, particularly gendered divisions of labour and power. Kerala's marine fishing sector, contributing about 13% of India's total marine fish production and employing over 800,000 people, has undergone profound technological change since the introduction of ring seine gear in the mid-1980s. This gear, targeting small pelagics like sardine, mackerel, and anchovies—species important for food security—was adopted by traditional fishers to compete with mechanised trawlers.

**Methods:** The study was conducted in Chellanam village, Ernakulam District, Kerala, where ring seines were first introduced in 1982. The authors drew on previous field research and conducted in-depth interviews during November–December 2021 with 10 persons (2 women, 8 men) aged 46–70 years whose livelihoods depended on ring seine fishing, with 16–50 years of engagement. Key informant interviews were also conducted with the Secretary of the Chellanam Kandakadavu Fishermen Welfare Development Cooperative Society (a woman with 31 years of experience) and two fishermen and their wives. The analysis was informed by feminist commodity chain analysis and feminist studies of gender and technology.

**Key Results:** The ring seine gear expanded dramatically from its original dimensions of 250 m length and 33 m depth to about 1 km length and 100 m depth, with vessel length increasing from 9.7 m to 24 m and engine power from 9.9 hp to over 600 hp. A steel inboard-engine thanguvallam and gear now costs about INR 7.5 million (USD 100,000), compared to INR 1.1 million (USD 15,000) in the early 2000s. Ring seines' contribution to marine fish landings rose from 21.4% in the 1990s to over 50% in the 2010s, with almost 90% of oil sardine and 60% of mackerel now caught by this gear. However, increasing numbers and sizes of units have led to declining per-unit catches and reduced profitability. Fuel accounts for 60–80% of operational costs. The traditional 40:60 income share system between owners and crew persists, including the karanila system where surplus labourers who report for work but don't go to sea still receive equal shares. Women have been most affected: landings shifted from local beaches to distant harbours (15–25 km away), limiting women's access to fish. Women's household responsibilities, transport costs, competition from cash-rich male traders, and the masculine atmosphere of harbours have pushed many women out of fish marketing and processing. Women who once ran independent fish drying businesses now work as wage labourers earning INR 300–350 per day (USD 4–5) or dry fish for agents at INR 200 (USD 2–3) per box of anchovies. Fish prices for the three main species have increased 100–300% in the last 10–15 years, making it unaffordable for women to purchase fish for drying.

**Clinical Implications:** While not a clinical study, this research has implications for food security and nutrition. Small pelagics like sardine, mackerel, and anchovies are identified as important for the food security and nutrition of the poor. The de-feminisation of the fishery and women's reduced access to fish for processing and household consumption may negatively affect household nutrition and food security. The study highlights how technological change in food systems can marginalise vulnerable groups, with potential downstream effects on community health and wellbeing. The findings underscore the need for governance interventions that consider gendered impacts of fisheries technologies.