Diseases of Iberian ibex ( Capra pyrenaica )

**Background:** Iberian ibex (Capra pyrenaica) is an ecologically and economically important mountain ungulate endemic to the Iberian Peninsula. Diseases can regulate population dynamics but also threaten vulnerable populations. Additionally, Iberian ibex can act as carriers or reservoirs for pathogens shared with domestic animals and humans, posing concerns for livestock and public health. This review aims to compile all available knowledge on diseases of Iberian ibex, presented according to their relevance to health and demography of free-ranging populations, diseases under health surveillance plans, other reported diseases, and diseases relevant in captivity.

**Methods:** The authors conducted a systematic review of all information on diseases affecting Iberian ibex, including unpublished reports, scientific communications in meetings, and scientific articles. This allowed the first comprehensive compilation of Iberian ibex diseases.

**Key Results:** The review identifies sarcoptic mange (caused by Sarcoptes scabiei) as the most significant disease, causing dramatic demographic declines in naïve populations with initial mortality reaching up to 90% (Fandos 1991; Pérez et al. 1997a; León-Vizcaíno et al. 1999). After epizootic outbreaks, the disease transitions to enzootic status with prevalences even below 1% and low associated mortality (Ruiz-Martínez et al. 1993). Resistant individuals can survive over 649 days compared to around 90 days for non-resistant ones (León-Vizcaíno et al. 1999; Alasaad et al. 2013). Visual diagnosis on the field has 87% sensitivity and 61% specificity (Valldeperes et al. 2019). Infectious keratoconjunctivitis (caused by Mycoplasma conjunctivae) has relatively high morbidity with low mortality ranging from 5% up to 27% (Loison et al. 1996; Degiorgis et al. 2000; Giacometti et al. 2002a). Caseous lymphadenitis (Corynebacterium pseudotuberculosis) has been reported with seroprevalences up to 18.9% in free-ranging populations (Varela-Castro et al. 2017) and can cause outbreaks in captivity. For diseases under targeted surveillance, brucellosis seroprevalences range from 0 to 2.6% (various studies), tuberculosis seroprevalences up to 14.6% (Ruiz-Rodríguez 2018) but no confirmed clinical cases, and bluetongue seroprevalences from 3.4% to 11.1% (various studies). Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever virus antibodies were found in up to 100% of individuals in some populations (Espunyes et al. 2021; Carrera-Faja et al. 2022). Over 60 parasite species have been described in Iberian ibex.

**Clinical Implications:** Sarcoptic mange is the main health threat to naïve Iberian ibex populations, but most affected populations recover and achieve enzootic status. Empiric management measures like mass ivermectin-medicated feed administration lack scientific validation and may be ineffective or counterproductive, potentially interfering with natural selection of resistant individuals. Surveillance and control of sarcoptic mange in sympatric domestic livestock is likely more efficient. The review questions the rationale for including tuberculosis and brucellosis in health surveillance programs, as Iberian ibex appears to be a spillover host rather than a reservoir. Other diseases like Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever, paratuberculosis, and abortive agents warrant further research to understand their potential demographic effects and zoonotic risks. Captive populations face additional disease risks including enterotoxemia, contagious ecthyma, footrot, and pyogenic infections due to higher densities and stress.