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narrative_review·tissue engineering, bioprinting, biomaterials, regenerative medicine·PMC10574968

Recent Progress of the Vat Photopolymerization Technique in Tissue Engineering: A Brief Review of Mechanisms, Methods, Materials, and Applications

Polymers · 5 authors, 3 centres

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TL;DR

This review summarizes vat photopolymerization (VP) bioprinting, including SLA, DLP, CLIP, and volumetric printing, which uses light to solidify cell-laden bioresin with high resolution and speed. Key biomaterials like GelMA, HAMA, and chitosan enable fabrication of liver, skin, bone, and cartilage scaffolds, though challenges remain in multimaterial printing and achieving transplantable tissues. The clinical significance lies in VP's potential to create complex, patient-specific tissue constructs for regenerative medicine.

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**Background:** Vat photopolymerization (VP) is a 3D bioprinting technique that uses UV or visible light to solidify photoactive bioresin in a vat, enabling fabrication of complex tissue scaffolds with high resolution (<100 nm) and rapid speed. This review covers mechanisms, methods, materials, and applications in tissue engineering.

**Methods:** The review describes four photopolymerization mechanisms: free radical chain growth (e.g., GelMA), step-growth (thiol-ene), photo-radical coupling (e.g., eosin Y), and two-photon polymerization (TPP). VP techniques include stereolithography (SLA), digital light processing (DLP), continuous liquid interface production (CLIP), high-area rapid printing (HARP), computed axial lithography (CAL), and TPP. Bioresin components include photoinitiators (PIs) like Irgacure 2959, LAP, eosin Y, and riboflavin, and biomaterials such as gelatin methacrylate (GelMA), hyaluronic acid methacrylate (HAMA), chitosan, alginate, and PEG derivatives.

**Key Results:** VP achieves printing resolution <100 nm (TPP) and speeds up to 1000× faster than traditional methods (CLIP). For example, HARP printed a 38 cm × 61 cm × 76 cm construct in 105 min. In liver tissue engineering, DLP-printed GelMA/dECM scaffolds enhanced hiHep cell viability and albumin secretion. For skin, DLP-printed GelMA/HA-NB scaffolds with HSFs and HUVECs reduced wound closure time in rats. In bone, SLA-printed PTMC-MA with 40% nano-HAP induced vascularization and new bone formation in rabbit skull defects. For cartilage, CAL-printed GelMA menisci with ACPCs showed uniform GAG and collagen I distribution after 28 days.

**Clinical Implications:** VP bioprinting offers unprecedented control over scaffold architecture, enabling patient-specific tissue constructs for liver, skin, bone, and cartilage repair. However, challenges include limited multimaterial printing, cell sedimentation in low-viscosity bioresins, and the need for transparent, biocompatible materials. Future directions include developing high-speed, high-resolution VP techniques and universal bioresin toolboxes.

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narrative_review

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tissue engineering

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ORIGINAL PAPER

PMC10574968

Recent Progress of the Vat Photopolymerization Technique in Tissue Engineering: A Brief Review of Mechanisms, Methods, Materials, and Applications

Polymers

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ABSTRACT

Vat photopolymerization (VP), including stereolithography (SLA), digital light processing (DLP), and volumetric printing, employs UV or visible light to solidify cell-laden photoactive bioresin contained within a vat in a point-by-point, layer-by-layer, or volumetric manner. VP-based bioprinting has garnered substantial attention in both academia and industry due to its unprecedented control over printing resolution and accuracy, as well as its rapid printing speed. It holds tremendous potential for the fabrication of tissue- and organ-like structures in the field of regenerative medicine. This review summarizes the recent progress of VP in the fields of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. First, it introduces the mechanism of photopolymerization, followed by an explanation of the printing technique and commonly used biomaterials. Furthermore, the application of VP-based bioprinting in tissue engineering was discussed. Finally, the challenges facing VP-based bioprinting are discussed, and the future trends in VP-based bioprinting are projected.

CITATION EXPORT

Ying Li, Xueqin Zhang, Xin Zhang et al.. Recent Progress of the Vat Photopolymerization Technique in Tissue Engineering: A Brief Review of Mechanisms, Methods, Materials, and Applications. Polymers. (2023). https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15193940

AUTHORS

5 · 3 CENTRES

Ying Li, Xueqin Zhang, Xin Zhang, Yuxuan Zhang, Dan Hou

1College of Chemistry and Materials Engineering, Beijing Technology and Business University, Beijing 100048, China
2FuYang Sineva Materials Technology Co., Ltd., Beijing 100176, China
3Chinese Academy of Meteorological Sciences, China National Petroleum Corporation, Beijing 102206, China

EDITOR / REVIEWER

Paul F. Egan