Traditional foraging for ecological transition? Wild food ethnobotany among three ethnic groups in the highlands of the eastern Hindukush, North Pakistan

This cross-sectional ethnobotanical survey documented wild food plant and mushroom (WFP) foraging knowledge among three ethnic communities—Pathans, Kohistanis, and Gujjars—in the highlands of the eastern Hindukush, North Pakistan. Data were collected through 120 semi-structured interviews and compared cross-culturally using Venn diagrams and the Jaccard similarity index. A total of 68 WFPs were recorded, predominantly used as raw snacks and cooked vegetables, with fruit being the most frequently reported plant part. Thirty-seven percent of recorded plants were shared across all three groups. Pathans retained rich WFP knowledge and showed closer affinity with Kohistanis than with Gujjars. Gujjars exhibited distinctive plant uses reflecting their mobile pastoralism and limited sociocultural exchanges due to endogamic patterns. The authors suggest that traditional foraging practices fulfill environmental and social sustainability standards and could inform future development and food-security policies.